Peer-Reviewed Articles

Williams, K.L., & Taylor, L. (2022). The Black Cultural Student STEM Success Model: A framework for Black students’ STEM success informed by HBCU environments and Black Educational Logics. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 28(6) 81-108.

There has been a long-standing policy push to increase the number of students in STEM fields, along with targeted efforts to diversify STEM professions, and enhance participation for certain racial/ethnic groups as a part of an overarching strategy to bolster STEM pathways. One important goal is to increase the number of future Black STEM professionals−a group that continues to be underrepresented in multiple STEM fields. While efforts to increase STEM participation involve many points on the education continuum, higher education is a critical conduit between academic training and the STEM workforce. In this context, it is important to note that historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) have traditionally produced a disproportionate number of Black STEM graduates, often doing so with limited resources. HBCUs are known to create racially affirming environments for Black students. However, there has been limited scholarship on the educational practices therein which promote Black students' STEM success. In this paper, we begin to address the dearth of theoretical literature related to HBCU STEM environments. We discuss extant HBCU STEM literature through the lens of Black educational logics−a set of sensibilities concerning the sociocultural and structural characteristics of HBCUs. We established this lens by synthesizing two theoretical frames: triple quandary−a social psychology theory developed to describe the unique socialization agenda for Black people in America, and the concept of institutional logics, which details the guiding ideologies that shape behavior and practices within organizations. Grounded in this literature, we offer the Black cultural student STEM success (BCS3) model to explore how Black educational logics shape Black students' STEM success at HBCUs. Implications for organizational transformation and STEM higher education policy are discussed.

Taylor, L. D., & Williams, K. L. (2022). Critical sensemaking: A framework for interrogation, reflection, and coalition building toward more inclusive college environments. Education Sciences, 12(12), 877.

Given the oppressive nature of higher education environments, educators must support students in making sense of their experiences—especially minoritized students. Although this kind of sensemaking often happens informally, college educators are primed to support students in understanding: (1) their experiences within and their interactions with higher education environments; (2) how those experiences and interactions reflect and are shaped by systemic issues; and (3) the implications of these experiences and interactions during college and beyond. Accordingly, we introduce critical sensemaking (CSM) as a pedagogical tool that educators can expose students to and create a more equitable college environment. CSM is a framework that encourages students to interrogate their collegiate environments and experiences, focusing on power and systems of oppression and how they interpret and negotiate their environments. Only by gaining this understanding can students press for institutional transformation in a manner that reflects various aspects of their experiences; hence, creating an institutional accountability structure. Moreover, educators supporting students’ acquisitions of CSM skills provides opportunities to build trust and meaningful coalitions toward creating more inclusive college environments.

Williams, K.L., & Mobley Jr., S.D., Campbell, E. & Jowers, R. (2022). Meeting at the margins: culturally affirming practices at HBCUs for underserved populations. Higher Education.

Drawing upon theories concerning culturally informed pedagogy and college environments, this qualitative study utilizes grounded theory techniques to explore the culturally affirming practices that Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) faculty and administrators employ to create inclusive and supportive environments for populations often marginalized in US higher education—especially low-income and first-generation college students. In doing so, we focus on practice(s) that meet the unique needs of these students as an extension of existing research on high-impact practices (HIPs). While we take up these issues within the context of the US, we consider the implications within national and international domains. The findings highlight three approaches to cultural affirmation: centering students’ experiences in humanizing and validating ways; prioritizing relevant and relatable educational experiences; and understanding the balancing act that many students must negotiate due to multiple life demands. As a complement to existing research about supportive HBCU environments from the student perspective, this study highlights the voices of HBCU faculty and administrators given their ability to cultivate and shape student success practices on campus. In doing so, we discuss insights from HBCU contexts about not only serving Black students, but also those from other marginalized backgrounds. This study expands existing research concerning culturally informed practices at HBCUs and other minority-serving institutions; emphasizes their contributions to the global higher education community; and highlights strategies that other institutions can employ to create more inclusive spaces for various underserved students. Implications for student success practice(s); pedagogy and academic development; and higher education policy are discussed.

Williams, K.L., & Davis, S.C. (2021). Math challenges, strengths and achievement: Towards a theory of strain-induced performance-perception misalignment for racially marginalized students. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 27(4), 59-90.

In the midst of an expanding knowledge-based economy, there remains a policy emphasis on increasing the number of professionals in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) within the United States. In addition to a general interest in increasing STEM pathways for all students, there have been concentrated efforts to expand opportunities and STEM-related academic achievement for Black and Latinx students because of their underrepresentation in many of these fields. This critical quantitative study employs large-scale national data to examine an important outcome for Black and Latinx students’ STEM academic trajectories—their math achievement during high school. 

A strength-based role strain and adaptation approach is employed to investigate how students’ math challenges and math-related multilevel strengths (i.e. positive psychological attributes and social supports) combine to influence their math achievement. Furthermore, we examine how the relationship between students’ strengths and achievement may be moderated by their prior math challenges. The findings suggest that some aspects of Black and Latinx students’ strengths (e.g. math identity, math self-efficacy and math-related social support) are positively related to their achievement; however, in some instances, the nature of these relationships may differ according to students’ prior math challenges. Based upon these findings, the authors advance a theory of strain-induced performance-perception misalignment which emphasizes how students’ prior math challenges may create a barrier to the potential benefits of positive math-related psychological orientations. Implications for the following are discussed: theory; educational practice regarding social supports and the need to change educators’ psychological dispositions; and opportunity gaps and STEM education policy.

Williams, K.L., & Russell, A., & Summerville, K. (2021). Centering blackness: Culturally-informed strategies for student success at HBCUs. Innovative Higher Education.

Existing research notes that Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) are bastions of Black culture where Black students often feel supported (e.g., Harris, 2012). What is less well-known are the specific practices campus stakeholders enact to create culturally-affirming environments. This study addresses this gap in the literature by examining pedagogy and educational practices employed by HBCU administrators and faculty members that build upon the lived experiences of Black communities to help to promote Black students’ success. In doing so, we seek to better understand the strategies these individuals utilize to center Blackness via culturally-informed practices and culturally engaging environments that affirm Black students’ racial identities. Our findings highlight the following ways that HBCU administrators and faculty members embrace Black cultural affirmation: their emphasis on culturally relevant knowledge and culturally-informed pedagogy that centers Black experiences; and their commitment to Black cultural validation that connects with Black communities and Black students’ backgrounds. This research extends current scholarship on educational practices and environments with a focus on Black students’ racial identity. The authors provide implications for culturally-affirming pedagogy and campus climates that can benefit various types of institutions that seek to create inclusive educational spaces where students from various backgrounds do not have to feel divorced from key aspects of their cultural heritage.

Dillon, E. & Williams, K.L. (2020). Course content as a tool of inclusivity for Black/African-American women in computing. The Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges, 36(3) 151-160.

Promoting inclusion and increasing the representation of women in the field of Computer Science (CS) has been an ongoing initiative. When it comes to Black/African-American (AA) women, their under-representation in CS is even more disproportionate. CS is ever-evolving, but its ability to be perceived as a field with a breadth of spaces that reflects its potential to be inclusive-to-all has been a continuing challenge. Using course content to provide spaces for under-represented groups, like Black/AA women, to express their personal interests as they develop their computational competencies can help in addressing such potential in CS. This article discusses a two-year study conducted on 51 Black- /AA female students enrolled in an introductory and/or intermediate CS course at a historically black university in the mid-Atlantic United States. A final project was administered in both courses to allow these students to choose their own original problem to solve while showcasing their learned computational knowledge and developed programming competencies. The results revealed that 93% of the project topics chosen by these students exhibited people-centered orientations in nature. Furthermore, these outcomes reflect the potential nature for CS to be a field that can provide a breadth of spaces that reflect one’s interest while also promoting inclusion.

Williams, K.L. (2020). Contextualizing math-related strengths and math achievement: Positive math orientations, social supports and the moderating effects of prior math knowledge. Journal of STEM Education Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41979-020-00033-z

Ongoing policy discussions emphasize the need for more STEM professionals to keep the United States internationally competitive in scientific fields and industry. From a K-16 perspective, it is important to note that students’ trajectories into STEM professions are often shaped by their high school experiences—especially in mathematics. Accordingly, this study employs a strength-based framework to examine students’ high school math achievement with an emphasis on the role of their math-related personal and social strengths. This research uses data from the NCES High School Longitudinal Study, a large-scale national study that emphasizes students’ math outcomes. Moderated regression was utilized to examine associations between students’ high school math-related strengths and their math achievement, as well as how these relationships may differ based upon students’ prior math achievement. The findings suggest that a number of students’ strengths in math were positively related to their math achievement; however, some of these relationships differed base upon prior math achievement levels. Accordingly, while math-related strengths can be equally beneficial for students in some instances, in other instances there is a need to better understand these relationships with some nuance. Implications for K-16 STEM education policy, practice and research are discussed.

Williams, K. L., Coles, J. A., & Reynolds, P. (2020). (Re)Creating the script: A framework of agency, accountability, and resisting deficit depictions of Black students in P-20 education. The Journal of Negro Education, 89(3), 249-266.

Historically, education research and practice has failed to accentuate the factors that promote Black student success and, instead, produced deficit-centered narratives that focused on Black students’ academic underachievement and challenges. These dominant narratives have negatively influenced Black students’ experiences and there is a need for an alternate lens that does not reduce the Black academic experience to one of challenge and underperformance. As various stakeholders work to unhinge inequitable power structures within education, it is important that we critically examine the ways in which current education research and practice perpetuate narratives rooted in racist logic. Accordingly, this article interrogates that question and examines how historical racial biases continue to afflict Black students. Also, the authors examine research concerning Black student agency as a counter to marginalizing depictions. Furthermore, conceptual guidance (i.e., The Aftermath Framework) is offered to identify, challenge, and disrupt the continuation of majoritarian narratives concerning Black students, which often restrict opportunity structures and Black students’ overarching educational trajectories.

Williams, K.L., Mustafaa, F.N., & Burt, B.A. (2020). Black males and early math achievement:  A holistic examination of students’ strengths and role strain with policy implications. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering. 25(4), 325-352.

Ongoing policy discourse highlights the need to increase pathways into science, technology, engineering, and mathematics professions. While there is a policy push to increase STEM outcomes along the K-16 pipeline, and to expand access to career opportunities in these fields, there is also a targeted emphasis on increasing opportunities for underrepresented students as a strategic approach to diversify participation. Although male representation in STEM is generally high, the representation of males from some minority groups remains low—particularly Black males. Given that STEM pathways begin at early points in students’ academic matriculation, this study seeks to better understand Black boys’ STEM experiences and how those experiences relate to later STEM-related achievement. We focus on Black boys’ experiences in mathematics, specifically, because a foundational understanding of math is often needed to be successful in other scientific fields. This study employs a role strain and adaptation framework to examine the academic strengths and math-related strains that Black boys possess in middle school, and to investigate how these factors promote or hinder high school math achievement. The findings suggest that the strains and strengths of Black boys while in middle school relate to their math achievement. Furthermore, it illustrates how holistic models that consider strains and strengths simultaneously better illuminates the individual relationships between each of these factors and the outcome.

Williams, K. L., & Toldson, I. A. (2020). Reimagining education as a point of resistance (Guest Editorial). The Journal of Negro Education, 89(3), 193-202.

America is currently in the process of attempting to manage and respond to a major global public health crisis, the likes of which have not been encountered in over a century. However, in the mist of the pandemic, the country is also reckoning with a different public crisis that has long afflicted Black communities in this country—American racism. The racial injustices that are currently at the forefront of public discourse are far from breaking headlines for most Black people in America. Nonetheless, a large swath of the country is …

Howell, D., Norris, A., & Williams, K. L. (2019). Towards Black Gaze Theory: How Black female teachers make Black students visible. Urban Education Research & Policy Annuals, 6(1).

Damage-centered research (Tuck, 2009) dehumanizes Black people by focusing on disparities rather than cultural capital. Moving away from theories that frame blackness as a deficit, we turn to Black women teachers and educators and their humanizing pedagogies as experts in cultivating cultural wealth of Black children, youth, and families. Building on Culturally Relevant Pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 2014), Community Cultural Wealth (Yosso, 2015), and Black Feminist Thought (Collins, 2000) we look towards Black female teachers and the ways that they mentor and humanize Black students to lay the foundation for Black Gaze Theory as a framework that 1) shifts conceptions of Black children away from a white gaze laden with “amused contempt and pity” (Du Bois, 1994, p. 2) to sociopolitical consciousness and 2) describes the cultural wealth of Black children and youth.

Williams, K. L., Burt, B. A., Clay, K. L., & Bridges, B. K. (2018). Stories untold: Counter-narratives to anti-blackness and deficit-oriented discourse concerning HBCUs. American Educational Research Journal, 56(2), 556-599.

Although there is empirical evidence concerning the value of historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs), broader narratives about these institutions too often overemphasize challenges and depict them from a deficit perspective. We argue that such depictions elide the benefits of HBCUs within the higher education landscape and are rooted in a form of institutional anti-blackness—persistent imagery and discourse that construct Black colleges and universities as institutions devoid of value. In response to such silencing, this study employs counter-narratives rooted in a critical race methodology to illuminate the modern contributions of HBCUs as told by their chief executive officers—HBCU presidents. These contributions include transforming today’s learners into tomorrow’s leaders, a commitment to serving low-income students that is unencumbered by their financial strains, and tapping the potential of students who were marginalized in prior academic environments.

Burt, B.A., Williams, K.L., & Palmer, G. (2018). It takes a village: The role of emic and etic adaptive strengths on the persistence of Black men in engineering graduate programs. American Educational Research Journal, 56(1), 39-74.

Black men, underrepresented in engineering, constitute a missing segment of the population who could contribute to the global knowledge economy. To address this national concern, stakeholders need additional research on strategies that aid in Black men’s persistence. This study explores the experiences of 30 Black men in engineering graduate programs. Three factors are identified as helping them persist from year to year, and in many cases through completion of the doctorate: the role of family, spirituality and faith-based community, and undergraduate mentors. The article concludes with implications for future research and professional practice that may improve the experiences of Black men in engineering graduate programs, which may also increase the chances that they will remain in the engineering workforce.

Burt, B. A., Williams, K. L., & Smith, W. A. (2018). Into the storm: Ecological and sociological impediments to Black males’ persistence in engineering graduate programs. American Educational Research Journal, 55(5), 965-1006.

While much is known about how Black students negotiate and navigate undergraduate studies, there is a dearth of research on what happens when these students enter graduate school. This article presents the results of a study of 21 Black male graduate students in engineering from one highly ranked research-intensive institution. This article provides evidence of structurally racialized policies within the engineering college (e.g., admissions) and racialized and gendered interactions with peers and advisors that threaten Black males’ persistence in engineering. We argue for taking an anti-deficit approach to understanding Black males’ persistence in engineering. We conclude with implications for policy, practice, and research that could further improve the scholarship and experiences of Black males in engineering graduate programs.

Williams, K. L., Burt, B. A., & Hilton, A. A. (2016). Math achievement: A role strain and adaptation approach. Journal for Multicultural Education, 10(3), 368-383.

This study aims to better understand how students’ academic strains and multilevel strengths relate to their math achievement, with a particular emphasis on underrepresented students of color and girls given the need to broaden science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) participation for these groups. The findings suggest that both the academic strains and multilevel strengths that students’ experience in middle school are related to their high school math achievement and the prevalence of these factors varies across different policy-relevant student subgroups. Furthermore, the relative importance of these factors on achievement differs.

Williams, K. L. (2014). Strains, strengths and intervention outcomes: A critical examination of intervention efficacy for underrepresented groups. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2013(158), 9-22.

This chapter offers a critical lens for examining intervention efficacy. It highlights a conceptual framework particularly relevant for understanding the experiences of underrepresented students and illustrates how such framing can explicate the mechanisms that impede or enhance successful intervention outcomes in STEM fields.

Select High-Impact Peer-Reviewed STEM Conference Proceedings

Dillion, E., *Wimberly Jr., T., *McMichael, M., *Brown, L., * Dina, A., & Williams, K.L. (2023). Examining psychological and social factors that impact the experiences and representation of Black women in computer science (A case study). American Society of Engineering Education (ASEE) Annual Conference & Exposition (DOI forthcoming)

As technology continues to evolve, the promotion of equity, inclusion, and representation for all need to reflect this evolution and expansion. Even though efforts have been made to address such challenges for women and underrepresented racial/ethnic groups in computer science (CS), additional work is needed. This is especially the case for Black women, who face regular affronts to their CS abilities because of race and gender biases. While the combination of racial and gender discrimination has spanned decades for Black women in the tech industry and related spaces, efforts regarding equitable inclusion and overall representation are lacking. In recent years, there has been a rise in college-to-company pipeline initiatives with the intent of addressing the under-representation of Black women in tech. However, only a slight increase in their representation has occurred. Accordingly, the objective of this study is to examine critical factors that impact the representation of Black women in CS. This article discusses a case-study involving a Historically Black University and 24 Black women, who were either current CS majors at that institution or recent CS graduates/new professionals from that university. Study participants were asked questions related to: establishing a CS identity; personal experiences and challenges as a Black woman in CS; and recommendations for promoting equity, inclusion, and representation for Black women in CS. Key findings revealed that the majority of these women where CS identified. Yet, most of them also noted a lack of confidence and exhibited imposter syndrome as part of their CS experiences. Overall, this research contributes to the attention needed to address equity, inclusion, and representation challenges of Black women in CS by highlighting issues faced when trying to develop and establish themselves in the field.

Williams, K.L., Waisome, J.A.M., *Lilly, R. & *Josepher, R. (2022). Perspectives on diversity: Examining perceptions of campus and departmental climates amongst domestic and international computing graduate students. Conference on Research in Equitable and Sustained Participation in Engineering, Computing, and Technology (RESPECT), (DOI forthcoming)

There are longstanding conversations about institutional environments with an emphasis on the relationship between campus climate and student success. Such a focus is important in computing fields given the persistent underrepresentation of certain groups, and the need for institutional transformation to promote success for diverse populations. While diversity can be discussed within multiple domains, one important aspect is students’ country of origin—especially within graduate education. Given the prevalence of international students within many computing graduate programs, it is important to understand students’ perceptions of the campus environment and related diversity issues based upon their domestic status. Accordingly, this study explores the following research question: Do domestic and international students differ in their perceptions of campus environments, particularly as it relates to issues regarding diversity? We focus on students’ campus and departmental climate perceptions. The findings suggest that domestic and internationals students have similar perceptions of their departmental climate; however, domestic students have less favorable impressions of the overall campus climate. Moreover, domestic students generally reported that the campus and department climates for diversity were less accepting of different demographics. Implications for research, policy and practice are discussed with a focus on creating more equitable campus environments.

Policy Reports

Williams, K. L., Katsinas, S.G., & Bray, N. J. (2021). The Impact of Capital Loan Forgiveness. The University of Alabama Education Policy Center: Tuscaloosa, AL.

This issue brief outlines: (1) the Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) Capital Financing Program—a federal loan program to assist HBCUs to obtain low-cost capital financing for campus maintenance, renovation, and construction projects; (2) efforts to have these loans forgiven due to HBCUs’ financial constraints resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic; and (3) the impact of loan forgiveness on 7 of the 14 HBCUs in the State of Alabama. These key points are discussed:

• The historical financial challenges HBCUs have experienced that underscore the importance of HBCU Capital Financing Program loan forgiveness;

• The key role that HBCUs played in advocating for loan forgiveness; and

• The impact of this loan forgiveness policy development not only on 7 of the 14 HBCUs in Alabama, but also upon the state itself.

The case of Stillman College is presented to highlight the financial burden that the federal loan forgiveness program alleviated for HBCUs across the State of Alabama. The brief concludes with a discussion of the critical importance of federal loan forgiveness and how it can be leveraged to provide “greater bang for the buck” with regard to state financial support to HBCUs.

Williams, K. L. & Davis, B. L., (2019). Public and private investments and disinvestments in Historically Black Colleges and Universities. American Council of Education: Washington, DC.

Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) play a pivotal role in American society. These institutions represent about 3 percent of two-year and four-year public and private nonprofit institutions that participate in federal student financial aid programs, but award 17 percent of all bachelor’s degrees earned by black students. Over the last 20 years, HBCUs have also played a major role in graduating black students with bachelor’s degrees in STEM fields. 

This issue brief summarizes the federal, state, and local funding sources of HBCUs and non-HBCUs – in addition to private institutional investments – to illustrate continuing disparities in how colleges and universities secure resources.

Anderson, E. L., Williams, K. L., Ponjuan, L., & Frierson, H. (2018). The 2018 status report on engineering education: A snapshot of diversity in degrees conferred in engineering. Association of Public & Land-grant Universities: Washington, DC.

This federally-funded study examines trends in engineering degrees conferred at national and institutional levels to determine areas of growth among various groups, changes in racial, ethnic, and gender diversity in engineering, and which colleges and universities graduate a larger number of underrepresented groups in specific engineering disciplines.

Saunders, K., Williams, K. L., & Smith, C. (2016). Few resources, more debt: Loan debt burdens students at Historically Black Colleges and Universities. UNCF Frederick D. Patterson Research Institute: Washington, DC.

Student loans have become an increasingly important way for students and their families to pay for college. But for students at historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), student loan debt is a substantial burden. Students who attend these institutions—many of whom are low-income and first-generation—must borrow at higher rates and, consequently, graduate with substantially higher debt than their peers at non-HBCUs. This issue brief examines the rates, amounts and distribution of student loan debt among HBCU students relative to their non-HBCU peers. This analysis focuses solely on undergraduates attending four-year public and private, non-profit institutions, and employs the most recent publicly available data.

St. John, E., Fisher, A. S., & Williams, K. L. & Daun-Barnett, N. (2008). Educational opportunity in Indiana: A study of the Twenty-first Century Scholars Program. Lumina Foundation for Education: Indianapolis, IN.

During the past two-decades, Indiana improved in both high school-graduation and college-enrollment rates compared to other states. The Twenty-first Century Scholars Program, a statewide project that guarantees student aid and provides support services to low-income students, along with state-wide efforts to provide college preparatory courses in all high schools appear to have contributed to these outcomes, but further research was needed given limited prior research on these programs.

St. John, E., Daun-Barnett, N., & Williams, K. L. (2007). State policy, STEM preparation, and college access: A Comparison of Michigan and other states in the great lakes region. Educating a STEM workforce: New strategies for U-M and the state of Michigan conference proceedings. University of Michigan.

Chapters

Williams, K. L. (2023). Notes on being a Black Woman in STEM: A review of existing research concerning the experiences of Black women pursuing undergraduate STEM degrees. In L. Perna (Ed.), Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research (vol. 39). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32186-3_3-1

This chapter focuses on the experiences of Black undergraduate women, with an emphasis on factors that hinder and help to promote their successful progression to STEM degrees. In doing so, the chapter explores existing research concerning how their experiences may be shaped by their gender and race, as well as the combination thereof. The chapter begins with some important contextual information to frame the discussion of literature that follows. This entails defining STEM as a concept, as well as a discussion of the national STEM policy agenda. The second section of the chapter provides a thematic review of current higher education literature concerning Black women’s experiences in STEM, detailing frameworks that are common in the literature and covering issues such as the complexities of race-gendered stereotypes in STEM, along with Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and Black women’s STEM experiences. The third section of the chapter proposes a conceptual framework that combines the literature concerning Black women’s challenges pursuing STEM degrees and their sources of support to better understand how both can ultimately impact their STEM success. The chapter closes by highlighting important limitations in existing research and offering suggestions for future work.

St. John, E.P., Williams, K. L., & Moronski, K. (2010). Public policy and inequality in post-secondary opportunity: Educational statistics and the failure of education reform. In International Encyclopedia of Education (vol. 1, pp. 649-660). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.

For a quarter of a century, federal agencies have advocated reforming high schools as a means of improving college access. There have been two decades of statistical government reports documenting correlations between high school math courses and college enrolment. For more than a decade, states have been responding by raising math standards and requiring more math courses for graduation. Math scores on the SAT have risen slightly, as have the number of students taking the tests. Yet, college-enrolment rates by high school graduates have not improved this century, and racial inequality in enrolment has actually increased. The rising costs of college coupled with a decline in state and federal grants as a share of the net costs for low-income students provide the best explanations for the rising inequality. Given these ambiguities, government researchers should revise their methods of reporting on college access to include information on student-grant aid along with high school courses. Government officials should take responsibility for addressing financial inequalities for students who prepare for college.

Daun-Barnett, N.J., Fisher, A.S., & Williams, K. L. (2009). Inquiry in action in the Indiana project on academic success in practice: A formative evaluation of action inquiry in a multicampus context. In D. Hossler, J.P.K. Gross & M. Ziskin (Eds.), Readings on Equal Education. New York, NY: AMS Press, Inc.

Williams, K. L., Hu, S., & St. John, E.P. (2008). The influence of public funding strategies on college choice: A study of low-income, high-achieving African American students. In W.T. Trent & E.P. St. John (Eds.), Readings on Equal Education. New York, NY: AMS Press, Inc.